ISSN 1226-4490
The International Association of Central Asian Studies
International
Journal of
Central
Asian Studies
Volume 1 1996
Editor in Chief
Talat Tekin
Institute of Asian Culture and Development
A Comparative Study of Korean and Turkic
― Is Korean Altaic? ―
Choi Han-Woo (Hoseo University)
I. Introduction
In the past century much research has been carried out among the Altaic
languages, i.e. Turkic, Mongolian and Manch-Tungus languages. We can also find
some comparative studies between Mongolian and Korean as well as between
Manchu-Tungus and Korean. However, there are very few scientific attempts to make
the relationship of Turkic and Korean clear, even though Turkic is the most important
language for Altaic linguistics. The Turkic languages are not only spoken in the vast
area of Eurasia, from the Manchu region to the Eastern Europe, but also has abundant
historical materials than any other Altaic languages.
Regarding the relationship of Korean and the Altaic languages, Ramstedt already
argued long ago in the 1920s that Korean was of Altaic origin. Nevertheless, most
scholars in Korea who has been engaged in this matter still take dubious attitudes.
Some Korean scholars tend to deny totally the Altaic theory assuming the ProtoAltaic from which the genetic affinity of the Altaic languages, i.e. Turkic, Mongolian
and Manch-Tungus is supposed.
In this article, I discussed the problem of the Altaic theory regarding the Korean
language and then present additional evidences which support the Korean genetic
relationship with the Altaic languages. In this comparative study, I added examples of
correspondence from the other Altaic languages as the third witness in order to
enhance the scientific validity.
II. The Problem of the relationship of Korean and Altaic
Comparative studies of Korean and Altaic languages was begun in 1864 by Leon
de Rosny1). In his article, he argued that Korean belonged to the Tatar language family.
When Rosny used the term Tatar, he seemed not to mean Schott's concept of Tatar
which comprised of Turkic, Mongolian and Manch-Tungus, but the present UralAltaic languages2).
From this time to 1945, many scholars presented articles which dealt with the Altaic theory
in relation to the position of Korean. In this period the following theories and hypotheses were
generally suggested with regard to the affinity of Korean: affinity with Japanese3), affinity with
Ural-Altaic, affinity with Dravidian, and affinity with the Altaic languages4).
The first scholar who pursued the comparative study of Korean and Altaic languages on the
basis of the rule of phonological correspondence was B.D. Polivanov, Russian scholar. He dealt
with the correspondence of Korean /r/(/l/) and Altaic /l/(</š/), /r/(</z/) in his article “K voprosu o
rodstvennyx otnosheniyax koreyskogo i altaiskix yazykov (1927)”.
After one year, G. Ramstedt, the founder of Altaic linguistics, compared the
Altaic languages including Korean in his article “Remarks on the Korean language
(1928)“. In this article, he stated that Korean belonged to the Altaic language group.
In 1938, Ramstedt made his position more clear regarding the place of Korean among
the Altaic languages and argued that Korean was closer to Turkic, as well as ManchuTungus, than Mongolian. Ramstedt continued to study Korean in relation to Altaic
lingustics and left some of his valuable works behind: A Korean Grammar (1939),
Korean Etymology (1949), Das deverbale Nomen auf -i in den altaischen Sprachen
(1945), Das deverbale Nomen auf -m in den altaischen Sprachen (1950), Einführung in
die altaische Sprachwissenschaft (I-III, 1952-1966).
On the other hand, P. Aalto, a pupil of Ramstedt, made a study on the Altaic
initial p-, making use of linguistic materials left by Ramstedt. In this research, he gave
not many but persuasive examples of correspondence of the initial p- between Korean
and the Altaic languages.
N. Poppe who was an excellent pupil of Ramstedt greatly developed the theory
of Altaic linguistics. Concerning Korean, however, Poppe(1965: 148) did not come to
any conclusion but suggested the following three possibilities; 1. Korean may be
related to the other Altaic languages just as Manchu-Tungus and Turkic are related to
one other; 2. Proto-Korean may have branched off before the Altaic unity had come
into existence; 3. Korean have nothing but an Altaic substratum, originally being an
un-Altaic language which absorbed an ancient Altaic language or was imposed upon a
medium which had been speaking an Altaic language. In his scheme, however, Poppe
considered that Proto-Altaic split into the Chuvash-Turkic-Mongol-Manchu- Tungus
unity and Proto-Korean at the same time.
J. Street, a Mongolist, postulating a hypothetic Proto-North Asiatic from which
Proto-Altaic derived, supposed that Korean branched off from the Proto-North
Asiatic before the formation of Proto-Altaic. The difference between Poppe's and
Street's schemes concerns mainly the position of Korean. Consequently, Streeth
regarded Korean as more distant language to the Altaic languages than that both
Ramstedt and Poppe supposed5).
K. H. Menges, a Turcologist, strongly supported the close relationship of Korean
with the Altaic languages. He presented about 50 common vocabularies of Korean and
the Altaic languages in his articles “Korean and Altaic - A Preliminary sketch (1984)”.
Among western scholars, another strong supporter of the Altaic theory is R. A.
Miller. He includes to the Altaic languages not only Korean but also Japanese. He
proposed the hypothetic Peninsuliar East Altaic which was branched off from ProtoAltaic, identifying the Peninsular East Altaic with Koreanic or the ancient Korean
languages.
On the other hand, K. Grønbech, L. Ligeti, and J. Benzing assumed cautious
attitudes in the Altaic theory suggested by both Ramstedt and Poppe. They all
admitted its possibility, but at the same time considered that evidences were not
enough to prove the hypothesis.
Some scholars believe that the Altaic theory is premature and the affinity of the
languages in question still needs further proof. These scholars do not reject the Altaic
theory but believe that the evidences presented so far are insufficient.
Some other scholars such as G. Doerfer and G. Clauson, however, completely
reject the genetic relationship of the Altaic languages6). They not only regard the
genetic affinity of the Altaic languages as not proved but also undertake to prove the
opposite, i.e., that they do not possess a common ancestor. These scholars regards all
the common elements as old borrowings from one language into another. Doerfer's
attitude is characterized by two main features. First, he regards all words common to
Monglian and Turkic as loan-words. Second, he regards Monglian as the borrowing
language and Turkic as the lending language7).
When the dispute continued abroad among the western scholars, in Korea methodologies
applied to the Altaic studies until now began to be discussed. B.H. Kim and K.M. Lee, in 1960s,
emphasized the process of hyphothesis, proof, and confirmation in pursing comparative studies.
Later in 1975, K.M. Lee made a realistic approach, saying that proof would be impossible in the
case of comparative studies of languages.
On the other hand, among Korean scholars who were doubtful about Ramstedt's theory,
there aroused an argument that even Ramstedt himself was not confident of the genetic affinity
of the Altaic languages showing his letter sent to Izui, a Japanese scholar as evidence. Next year
after the publication of his book 'Studies in Korean ethymologies(1949), Ramstedt stated in his
letter that the reason of publishing the book without any explanation about the phnological rules
was due to that the work was experimental about Korean etymologies. Ramstedt did not forget
to say that he expected further studies by other scholars in the future. If anyone concluded
simply that Ramstedt was doubtful about the Korean affinity with Altaic from this remark of
Ramstedt, it would be too hasty or misunderstood about his serious attitude toward scientific
study. Besides his profound linguistical insight, he had deep knowledge of individual languages of
both Uralic and Altaic. But his knowledge of Korean was relatively slim although it was not less
at all than those of the other western schloars in that time. Therefore we should understand from
the letter that Ramstedt had a confidence of the affinity of Korean and Altaic, but that he had not
enough knowledge of Korean to establish the phonological rule of correspondences.
B. H. Kim brought into relief the possibility of contact of Korean and Paleo-Asiatic or the
possiblity of the Paleo-Asiatic adstrat of Korean the second time since 1976 when he dealt with
this subject, which both Poppe and Kreish(1955) had proposed in the similiar way. According to
his theory, because Korean has the Paleo-Asiatic language as a substratum, the relationship of
Korean and Altaic still was not unclear.
The theory of substratum has not only yet been generally accepted, but also the debate
about the Altaic theory or hypothesis of 70 years old has been going on in Korea. Recently the
number of scholars who simlply reject the Altaic theory without showing any evidences tend to
increase especially among young scholars. In my opinion, this is a kind of psychological
pheonomenon which gained force just because apparently the hypothesis still has not completely
been proved inspite of a century years long debate. In addition, this tendency seems to be
effected partly by the academic circles of North Korea where the theory of the Altaic affinity is
totally rejected according to the ideology of Juche.
Expressing his view that although the results of researches regarding the Altaic theory are
not satisfactory the theory also can not be completely rejected, K. J. Song confessed in his
article, 'the fact of Korean genealogy(1991)', that researches on the comparative studies of
Korean or Korean genealogy have already reached at its limit, and that he didn't know how to
solve this problem.
III. Phonological and Lexical Comparison of Korean and Turkic
The rule of phonetic correspondences was established by G. Ramstedt and
afterwards was reconfirmed by Poppe, Aalto and Tekin who are famous Altaists.
Most important phonetic corresponds between Altaic languages are
Zetacism(z=r), Sigmatism(š=l) and intitial p = h = x = f. Some princilpal phonetic
correspondences between Korean and Turkic are illustrated with examples. In
addition the numbers of lexical c evidences which support the Korean affinity with
Altaic languages are given below;
1) r = z (Zetacism): Korean, Mongolian, Manch-Tungus and Chuvash /r/
corresponds to Turkic /z/.
(1) Trk. iz 'footstep, trace', Chuv. yer id. // Ko. ərk- 'be pockmarked' (< *ər-k-).
(2) Trk. buz- 'break, crush' // Ko. pureči- 'be broken' (< *pur-e-či-). cf. Mo.
burči- id. (< *bur-či-).
(3) Trk. qaz- 'dig out', Chuv. xir- id. // Ko. kɔrk- 'scratch, scrape' (< *kar-k-). cf.
Mo. qaru- id. // Ma. karka- id. (< *kar-ka-).
(4) Trk. qaz 'goose', Chuv. kar id. // Ko. kari 'goose' (< *kar). cf. Ma. garu 'swan',
Tung.(Evk.) gare 'horned owl'.
(5) Trk. küzük 'knot' (< *küz-ük), Alt. kürmäk 'knot, bundle', Chuv. kere 'knitt' (<
*kür- 'weave' // Ko. korhom, korom 'coat string for binding' (< *kur-. cf. Mo. gürü-
'weave', etc.
2) l = š (Sigmatism): Korean, Mongolian, Manch-Tungus and Chuvash /l/
corresponds to Turkic /š/.
(1) Trk. aš 'food, grain' // Ko. al 'grain; egg'. cf. Mo. alisun 'grain' (< *ali-sun).
(2) Trk. iš 'work' // Ko. il id. cf. Mo. üyile id.
(3) Trk. tuš 'around, side', Chuv. tel id. // Ko. tule 'girth'.
(4) Trk. qašɨ- 'scratch' // Ko. kɨlk- id. cf. Mo. kalčɨ- 'rub'
(5) Trk. qoš 'pair' // Ko. kɔlb 'twofold'. cf. Tung.(Evk.) kolbo 'store', etc.
3) Initial *p-: Korean p- corresponds to Gold p-, Evenki, Lamut h-, Middle
Mongolian h-, Halaj h-, Mongolian ø(zero), Turkic ø(zero).
(1) Trk. adaq 'foot', Hal. hadaq id. // Ko. patang 'foundation', patak 'ground,
bottom'. cf. Mo. adak id. // Tung. hat, at 'foundation, foot', Ma. fatan id.
(2) Trk. öri 'high place' // Ko. puri 'summit, peak'.
cf. Mo. oroi 'summit', mMo. horai id. // Tung.(Evk.) horon id., Ork. poro id., Ma.
foron id.
(3) Trk. üt 'hole, opening', Hal. hiit id. // Ko. poci 'vulva' (< *puti). cf. Mo. ütügün
id., mMo. hütükün id.
(4) Trk. ür- 'blow up' // Ko. pur- id., cf. Mo.(Kalm.) üle- id. // Ma. fulge- id.
(5) Trk. üskür- 'pour out' (< *üs-kür-) // Ko. pus- id., etc. cf. Mo. üsür- id. // Ma.
fusu- id.
4) t = y : Korean and Manchu-Tungus /n/ correspond to /y/.
(1) Trk. yal-, yan- 'burn', yak- 'put into the fire' (< *ya-) // Ko. tha- 'burn'.
(2) Trk. yak- 'draw near' // Ko. taka (< *tak-a). cf. Mo. daga- 'follow, pursuit' //
Tung.(Evk.) daga 'near', dagamap-, dagadu- 'draw near'.
(3) Trk.(Uyg.) yalga- 'lick, caress, pett', yalgan 'lie' // Ko. talai- 'appease' (cf.
Ko.(Dial) talgai- id.). cf. Mo. doliya-, doluga- 'lick', mMo. dola- id. // Tung.(Evk.)
dala- id., etc.
5) n = y : Korean, Mongolian, Manchu-Tungus /n/ correspond to Turkic /y/.
(1) Trk. yapɨrgak, yapɨrkak 'leaf' (< *yap-ɨr-kak) // Ko. niph id., Ko.(Dial.)
niphari id. (< *niph-ari). cf. Mo. nabči id. // Tung. Evk. napči id.
(2) Trk. yaš 'fresh, greens', Trkm. yaš id // Ko. nal 'raw'. cf. Mo. nilagun 'fresh'
(< *nala-wun) // Tung.(Nan.) nala, nialo id.
(3) Trk. yaz 'early summer', Trkm. yaz id. // Ko. nyərɨm 'summer' (< *nyar-ɨm ).
cf. Mo. nirai 'fresh' (< *narai) // Ma. narhun 'summer'.
(4) Trk. yama- 'add' // Ko. nam- 'remain'. cf. Mo. neme- 'add', mMo. nem- id. //
Tung.(Evk.) nämä- id., etc.
6) c = y : Korean, Mongolian and Manch-Tungus correspond to Turkic /c/.
(1) Trk. yat- 'lie down' (< *ya-t-) // Ko. ca- 'sleep'.
(2) Trk. ye- 'eat', MK ye- id. // Ko. casi- 'eat (for elders)' (< *ca-si-), capsu-
'eat (for elders) (< *cap-su-). cf. Tung.(Evk.) cäb-, cäp-, cäv- 'eat', Ma. cä- id.
(3) Trk. yum- 'close one's eyes'. // Ko. cumusi- 'sleep (for elders)' (< *cumu-si-).
(4) Trk. yumruk 'the fist' (< *yum-ruk) // Ko. cum id., cumək id. (< *cum-ək).
7) Other lexical correspondences
(1) Ko. əl- 'unite sexually' // Trk. il- 'have relations with' (< *el-) // Mo. elgü-
'hang, hook' // Tung.(Evk.) elgu 'fish spear'.
(2) Ko. orkacap- 'tie up' (< *orka-cap-), orkami 'noose, snare' // Trk. urk, uruk
'snare, rope' // Mo. urga id., urgala- 'tie up' (< *orga-la-) // Ma. urgan 'noose',
urgala- 'tie up'.
(3) Ko. ur- 'cry' // Trk. ür- 'bark', Trkm. üyr- id. // Ma. ura- 'echo'. cf. Jap. ora-
'cry'.
(4) Ko. talko 'rammer', talku- 'pound earth with a rammer' // Trk. talqɨ- 'tan', Krg.
talkuu 'an instrument for tanning', Kzk. talgɨ id. // Ma. talki- 'tan'; Ko. tunggɨr- 'be
round' // Trk.(Chag.) tönggärläk 'round, circle' (< *tönggär-läk), Kzk. töngörök
'surroundings', tönggülök 'wheel', Krg. tögürök 'round' // Mo. tögörig 'round,
surroundings' // Tung.(Evk.) tungul, tungulle, tonggo, tongɨrɨ id.; Ko. turɨ- 'surround'
// Trk. tür- 'wind, roll, wrap', Trkm. düyr- id. (< *tür-) // Mo. türi- id.
(5) Ko. kamči- 'hem' (< *kam-či-), kam- 'wind' // Trk. qama- 'nail, lock', Krg.
kama- 'shield // Mo. qama- 'wind, shield', qamsa- 'unite', qamci- 'be united into one'
// Ma. kamačɨ- 'unite' (< *kam-čɨ-).
(6) Ko. sir 'thread' // Trk. sɨrɨ- 'sew' (< *sɨr-ɨ-), Trkm. sɨra-, sɨrda- id.(<* sɨr),
Trkm. sɨr 'muscle' // Mo. sirbüsün id., sirkeg 'fiber', Kalm. siri- 'sew' // Tung.(Evk.)
sirekte 'fiber', Ev. siren 'hair, fiber', Ma. sirge, sirxe 'fiber', sira- 'bind' (< *sir 'fiber,
muscle').
(7) Ko. mɨr mur 'water' // Trk.(Krg.) mürök 'spring water' (< *mür-ök), Uyg.
müren 'river' // Mo. mörön 'river', Bury. murən id. // Tung.(Evk.) mu 'water'.
IV. Morphological Comparison of Korean and Turkic
1. Derivational Suffixes
1) Noun suffixes
(1) Trk. +(V)č (diminitive suffix)
Orh. atač ‘father’ < ata; Uyg. ögüč ‘mother’ < ög; MK čuvač ‘tent’; Yak. urgas
‘wood for a roof’ < suruk-ač, etc.
// Ko. +ači/-əči (diminitive suffix)
abəči 'father' < abi; mangači 'pony, foal' < *ma-ng-ači < ma 'horse'; songači 'calf'
< *so-ng-ači < so 'cattle', etc.
cf. // Mo. +či (diminitive suffix): Mo. egeči ‘old man, the aged’ < ege; ekeči
‘elder sister, paternal aunt’ < eke; Mo. tobči ‘button’, tap’, Khal. tobč id. < tob; Kalm.
xäč ‘scissor’, Oir. xayči id. < xay, etc. // Tung. +aci, +ci (diminitive suffix): Tung.
hunaci ‘vergin, girl’, cf. (pl.) hunil < *hunnil < *hun-nil < *hun < fun ‘woman’; Tung.
asaci ‘girl’ < *asa-ci, etc.
(2) Trk. +či (personal suffix)
Orh. bädizči ‘painter, engraver’ < bädiz ‘picture, statue’; Orh. tamgači ‘sealkeeper, scriber’ < tamga ‘seal’, Orh. yogči ‘mourner’ < yog ‘mourning’, etc.
// Ko. +(a)čh
i (personal suffix)
phulmuačh
i 'bellower' < phulmu 'bellow; čangsačh
i 'merchant' < čangsa 'trade';
pyəsɨlačh
i 'high official' < pyəsɨl 'government post'; suhalčh
i 'hawk(falcon) hunter' <
suhal ‘hawk, falcon’; tongnyangčh
i 'beggar' < tongnyang 'begging', etc.
cf. // Mo. +či(n) (personal suffix): Mo. qoniči ‘shepherd’ < qoni(n) ‘sheep’; Mo.
moduçi ‘carpenter’ < modu(n) ‘tree’; emči ‘healer; pharmacist’ < em ‘medicine’, Mo.
temürči ‘smith’ < temür ‘iron', etc. // Ma. +ci (personal suffix): Ma. aduci ‘shepherd’
< adu(n) ‘herd(cattle)’; Ma. medeci ‘messenger’ < mede ‘message’; Ma. namuci
‘store keeper’ < namu ‘warehourse’, seyeci ‘driver’ < seye(n) ‘vehicle’, etc.
(3) Trk. +čak / +čäk (diminitive suffix)
Uyg. bičäk, bɨčaq 'small knife' < bi, bɨ 'knife' (< Chin. 匕); Uyg. qolɨčaq ‘arm’ <
qol; MK. qudručaq ‘tail(gown)’ < *qudur ‘tail’ (cf. MK qudruq ‘tail’ < *qudur-uq); Tel.
qɨsčaq 'girl' < qɨz 'girl; daughter', etc.
// Ko. +ccak < +čak (diminitive suffix)
kweccak 'small crate, box' < kwe 'crate, box'; kolccak 'small valley' < kol 'valley';
načh
ccak 'face' < načh
'face'.
cf. // Mo. +čag (diminitive suffix): Mo. yangirčag ‘saddle’ < yanggir, cf. Yak.
ɨngɨr 'saddle'; Kalm. tünggrcg ‘bag’ < *tünggir; Mong. t'ulunt's'iog 'skin bag' < *tulunčag, etc.
(4) Trk. +aq / +čäk (diminitive suffix)
Orh. čoraq ‘dry land’ < čor; MK köngläk ‘coat’ < *köngl-äk < köngül 'heart,
breast'; MK oglaq 'boy, son' < *ogul-aq < ogul 'son', etc.
// Ko. +ak / +ək (diminitive suffix)
tərək 'hair, feathers' < tər; ttɨrak 'small garden, yard' < ttɨr; murɨp
Hak 'knee' <
murɨp
h
id., kkumulǝk(mimesis) 'lingerling' < kkumul(mimesis) (cf. kkumurkǝri- <
kkumul) etc.
cf. // Mo. +ag (diminitive suffix): Mo. ugurag 'the yellow of an egg; mouth' <
ugur; Kalm. domag 'legend' < dom 'sorcery'.
(5) Trk. +(V)ng (diminitive suffix)
Uyg. ayančang 'respect' ayanč; Uyg öläng 'marsh, damp ground' < öl
'moisture'; otung 'firewood' < ot 'fire'; MK kölüng 'reservoir' < köl 'lake'; MK näng
'thing' < ne 'what', etc.
// Ko. +(V)ng (diminitive suffix)
korang 'furrow' < kor 'vale, valley'; kuməng 'hole' > kum; kitung 'pillar' < kit;
mangaci 'foal' < ma-ng-ači < ma 'horse', etc.
(6) Trk. ø (zero)
Orh. ač 'hungry' < ač- 'be hungry'; Orh. bädiz 'picture, decoration' < bädiz-
'decorate'; Orh. qarɨ 'old man' < qarɨ- 'grow old'.
// Ko. ø
Ko. hari 'slander, false charge' < hari- 'make a false charge'; Ko. kɔmɔr 'drought'
< kɔmɔl- 'have a drought'; kɔrb 'side by side' < kɔrb- 'put side by side' < *kalb-; kɨs
'stroke, dash' < kɨs- 'draw'; naks 'hook' < naks- 'fish, hook'; ph
um 'bosom' < ph
um-
'embrace'; sin 'shoes' < sin- 'wear(shoes), etc.
cf. // Mo. ø : Mo. adxu 'the space between the thumb and the fingers' < adxu-
'grasp, take hold of'; Mo. arga 'deliberation' < arga- 'deliberate'; Mo. ilbi 'sorcery;
hand skill' < ilbi- 'stroke, pat', etc. // Tung. ø : Lam. ay 'good' < ay- ‘make good,
correct'; Lam. əri 'price, value' əri- 'be of value', etc.
(7) Trk. -a / -ä (gerundial suffix)
Orh. ara 'interval, space' < *ar- 'pass by'; Orh. basa 'then, again' < bas- 'raid,
attack suddenly'; Orh. tapa 'in the direction of' < tap- 'find'; Orh. yana 'again' < yan-
'turn', etc.
// Ko. -a / -ə (gerundial suffix)
pirosə 'after all' < piros- 'arise from, begin'; čočh
a 'following' < čočh
- 'follow';
mota 'all togather' < mot- 'gather', etc.
cf. // Mo. -a: Kalm. čuhla '(foot)abandage' < čuhl- 'bind one's foot with bandage'
(cf. Mo. čugla- id.); Kalm. uya 'bundle' < uy- 'bind', etc.
(8) Trk. -ɨ/-i
Orh. qalɨ 'the rest' < qal- 'remain'; Orh. yazɨ 'plain, stepp' < yaz- 'widen, spread';
Uyg. köni 'right' < kön- 'be right, be correct'; MK adrɨ 'seperated, branched' < adɨr-
'seperate', etc.
// Ko. -i
kiri 'length' < kir- 'be long'; nori 'play, game' < nor- 'play'; məki 'prey' < mək-
'eat', etc.
cf. // Mo. -(V)i: Mo. ayisui 'approach, access' < ayis- 'approach'; Mo. bolui
'becoming' < bol- 'become'; söni 'night' < sön- 'be extinguished', etc. // Tung. suli
'sharp' < sul- 'grind, sharpen; rub'; Lam. təti 'cloth' < tət- 'wear'; Ev. nuli 'smoke' <
nul- 'burn', etc.
(9) Trk. -u/-ü (gerundial suffix)
Orh. ulayu 'and' < ula- 'connect'; Uyg. udu 'after' < ud- 'follow'; MK ašru
'exceedingly, beyond' < ašur- 'exceed, go beyond', etc.
// Ko. -o/-u (gerundial suffix)
pirɨso ‘after all' < pirɨs- 'arise from, begin'; nəmu 'exceedingly' < nəm- 'exceed';
maco 'face to face, vis-a-vis' < mac- 'greet, welcome', etc.
(10) Trk. -č
Uyg. ɨnanč 'belief, faith' ɨnan- 'believe'; sevinč 'joy' < sevin- 'be glad'; kömäč
'bread' köm- 'bury', etc.
// Ko. -(V)či *-č-i
namači 'the rest' nam- 'remain'; kərəči 'beggar' < *kər- 'beg'.
cf. Mo. -ča -če kalm. -c: ergiče 'switchover' < ergi- 'turn over', caruča
'servant' < caru- 'work(a servant)', Mo. boguča ‘bundle' < bogu- 'bind', Kalm. eklc
'beginning, first' < ekl- 'begin' // Tung. -čə: Lam. irčə 'ripening' < ir- 'ripe', etc.
(11) Trk. -ga/-gä
Orh. bilgä 'knowledge' < bil- 'know', Orh. tamga 'stamp, seal' < *tam- 'burn' (Uyg.
tamtur- 'put in the fire' < *tam-tur-), Uyg. ögä 'sage, wise (title)’ < ö- 'think', MK
köligä 'shadow' < köli- 'bury', etc.
// Ko. -kæ
kasikæ 'scissors' < *kasi- 'cut' (cf. Trk. kes- id.), makæ ‘stopper, stopple' <
mak-kæ < mak- 'stop up, close', pyəkæ 'pillow' < pyəi- 'lay one's head on a pillow',
ocumssakæ 'bed-wetter' < ocumssa- 'urinate', usɨkæ 'jocularity' < us- 'laugh', etc.
(12) Trk. -(V)q/-(V)k
Uyg. ämgäk 'pain, suffering' < ämgä- 'suffer pain', barq 'house, shelter' < *bar-
'build' (cf. bari- id.), Uyg. bädük 'big' < bädü- 'grow', etc.
// Ko. -Vk
bčok 'splinter, piece' < bča- 'piece together', ərrək 'stain, spot' *ər-ək < ərɨ-
'become stained', mɨsɨk 'what' < *mɨsɨ-, tuk 'bank, dike' < *tu- (cf. Kog. tu- 'stop',
Orh. tu- id.), etc.
cf. Tung. -ək: Lam. huklək 'bed' < huklə- 'go to bed', Lam. ukcənək
'conversation' < ukcən- 'converse', Lam. höruk ‘(marriage) dowry‘ < hör- 'take', etc.
(13) Trk. -(V)m
Orh. batɨm ‘sinking' < bat- 'sink', Orh. kädim 'clothes' < käd- 'wear', Uyg. yem
'prey' < ye- 'eat', etc.
// Ko.-(V)m
kɨrɨm 'picture' < kɨri- 'draw', kərɨm 'walking' < *kər-ɨm, ərɨm 'ice' < ər-
'freeze', mutəm 'grave' < mut- 'bury', etc.
cf. Mo. -m: Mo. qaram 'carving, desire' < qara- 'look at', Mo. adagam 'speed' <
adaga- 'be hurry', Mo. alqum 'walking' < alqu- 'walk', etc. // Tung. -(ə)m: in ManchuTungus -m which occurs in the compound suffixes of Nomen actoris such as Ev. -mgi,
Ma. -məi, -msi, Lam. -mǝi is a noun suffix; Tung. bäläčimgi 'help, looking after' <
bälä-či-m+gi. (Benzing 1955: 64).
(14) Trk. -ma/-mä
Uyg. yälmä 'cavalry' < yäl- 'ride a horse', MK örme 'plait(hair)' < ör- 'plait', Osm.
dondurma 'icecream' < dondur- 'freeze', etc.
// Ko. -may
karɨma 'a part in one's hair' < karɨ- 'split', yəlmay 'fruit' < yəl- 'bear fruit'.
cf. Mo. -ma /-me: gayiqama 'miracle' < gayiqa- 'be startled', Mo. bayima 'place
where there is able to be' < bayi- 'be', etc. // Tung. -may: Lam. baldɨvkanmay 'birth'
< baldɨvkan- 'bear', etc.
(15) Trk. -(V)ng
Uyg. iring 'decay' < iri- 'rotten', Uyg. yalang, yalɨng 'bare foot' < *yal- 'strip' (cf.
MK. yalɨn- 'take off, strip'), etc.
// Ko. mačong 'going out to meet' mač- 'meet', kkučong 'scolding' < kkuč-
'scold', čiphangi 'walking stick' < čiph-ang-i čiph- 'take a stick'.
cf. Mo. -ng: Mo. berteng 'disability, eformity' < berte- 'be disabled', Mo. qaldang
'spot, stain' < qalda- 'become stained', Kalm. xusrng 'castrated (ram)' < xusr- 'to be
castrated', etc.
(16) Trk. -p
Orh. qop 'all' < *qo- 'put', tolp 'all' < tol- '(water) be full', Kar.(Radl. IV. 791)
suvsap 'thirst' < suvsa- 'be thirsty', etc.
// Ko. -(V)p
mɔičɔp 'joint, node, knot' < mɔič- 'tie up, knot' (Huh 1975:237).
2) Verb suffixes
(1) Trk. +ɨ-/+iOrh. toqɨ- 'knock, strike' < toq (onomat.), Uyg. öli- 'be moist' < öl 'moisture',
Uyg. yɨdɨ- 'smell' < yɨd 'smell. odour', etc.
// Ko. +ičahi- 'take measure of'’ < čah 'a measuring rule', kkamccaki- 'surprise' <
kkamccak 'with surprise', kančiri- 'tickle' < kančir 'tickle', etc.
(2) Trk. +u-/+üOrh. yagut- 'draw near' < *yag-u-t- < yag (cf. MK yaqɨn 'near'), Uyg. bošu-
'come loose, divorse' < boš 'empty, free', etc.
// Ko. +ukɨnɨlu- 'get shaded' < kɨnɨl 'shadow' (Huh 1975: 206).
(3) Trk. +ta-/+tä, +da-/+däUyg. alta- 'decieve' < al 'trick', Uyg. öntä- 'call out, shout' < ön 'sound', Chag.
kolda- 'take hold of' < kol 'arm', T.Trk. kïmïlda- 'wriggle' < *kïmïl(mimesis), T.Trk.
pïrïlda- 'shine' < pïrïl(mimesis) etc.
// Ko. + tæ-, +ta- < +ta-pkkumultæ- 'linger' < *kkumul(mimesis), arɔmtap- 'beautiful' < *arɔm-ta-p- <
arɔam, kostap- 'be like flower' < *kos-ta-p-, etc. The denominal verb suffix -tap- is
a compound suffix which consisits of the denominal verb suffix -ta- and the deverbal
verb suffix -p-.
(4) Trk. +(ɨ)q-/+(i)kOrh. birik- 'get together' < bir 'one, 1', Orh. tašɨq- 'go out, overflow' < taš
'outside', Uyg. ičik- 'go into' < ič 'inside', etc.
// Ko. +kərk- 'be pockmarked' < ər 'scratch', mɨrk- 'be watery, washy' < mɨr 'water',
musk- 'bind, tie up' < mus 'bundle'.
cf. Tung. +g-: Tung. kilebg- 'bake' < kileb 'bread', Tung. untag- 'make shoes' <
unta 'shoes', etc.
(5) Trk. +qɨr-/+kirUyg. alačɨr- 'shout' < ala (onotomat.), ayqɨr- 'scream' < ay (onotomat.), MK.
üškür- 'whistle' < üš (onotomat.), etc.
// Ko. +kərikkumtɨrkəri- 'wiggle, twist' kkumttɨr (mimesis), məmuskəri- 'hesitate' <
məmus (mimesis), etc.
cf. Mo. +kira-/+kire-: Mo. qaskira- 'shout, yell' < qas (onotomat.), Mo. čirkire-
'noise' < čir (onotomat.), Mo. sirkira- 'feel a pain' < sir, etc.
(6) Trk. +(V)lOrh. tüzül- 'put in order' < tüz 'flat, even', Uyg. tusul- 'be useful' < tus
'usefulness, profit', Uyg. yoqlun- 'be removed, be gone away' < yoq 'not existing',
Chag. könil- 'be straightened' < köni 'straight, right', etc.
// Ko. +lphɨrɨl- 'become green' < phɨr 'grass', kohɨl- 'run at the nose' < koh 'nose',
tɨmɨl- 'rare' < *tɨm.
cf. Mo. +l-: ötel- 'grow old' < ötegü 'aged person' < *öte-gü. // Tung. -l-: Tung.
dəgil- 'fly' < də i 'bird', Tung. hawal- 'work' < hawa 'work', Tung. dagal- 'draw near'
< daga 'near', etc.
(7) Trk. -u-/-ü- (intensive suffix)
Uyg. säšü- 'loosen' < säš- 'untie, loosen', Chag. tɨdu- 'rule over' < tɨd-
'detain, hold back', qoqu- 'smell' < qoq-, etc.
// Ko. -o-/-utoto- 'raise' < tot- 'rise', moto- 'gather' < mot- 'come together', nazo- 'advance'
< nas- 'get better', kiulu- 'lean' < kiul- 'be leaning', məmɨlu- 'let sombody stay' <
məmɨl- 'stay', etc.
cf. Tung. -w-/-u- (intensive/ passive): buw- 'be given' < bu- 'give', Lam. əmu-
'bring' < əm- 'come', Lam. huru- 'take' < hur- 'go', Lam. iw- 'add' < i- 'go into', etc.
2. Inflectional suffixes8)
1) Plurality
(1) Trk. +n // Ko. +n
In Turkic, there are various suffixes which are added to certain words and form collective
nouns; +lar, +γun, +an, +t and +s. Among these collective suffixes, the suffix +n appears only
in the following collective nouns: Orkh. oγlan “sons” < oγul, Orkh. ärän “men” < är.
Ramstedt compared this suffix to the Korean word ne. (Ramst.II: 58). This word, being a
dependent noun, is used only with family names or personal names and means collective family:
Ko. Insune “Insu's family” < Insu, Kimssine “Mr. Kim's family” < Kim +ssi +ne. This occurs in
the other Altaic languages. In Mongolian this is used as a plural suffix: Mo. yabuγčin “(men) who
went” < yabuγči, Mo. noqan “dogs” < noqai, Mo. elčin “ambassadors” < elči, etc. This suffix
occurs in Tungus too; Go. +(a)na, Ude. +na. Ude. ɜxinɜwɜni “his sisters” < ɜxi+nɜ+wɜ+ni. On
the other hand, Poppe(1953: 27) asserted that the suffix +na in the Tungus plural suffixes
+nasal and +nahal which are compound suffixes is originally one and the same with the Altaic
plural suffix +n.
(2) Trk. +t // Ko. +t
In Ancient Turkic, the plural suffix +t occurs in certain nouns; oγlït “sons” < oγïl, Uyg. süt
“milk” < sün (cf. Mo. sün id.), Uyg. tegit “princes” < tegin, etc. This suffix is attested in
Kashgarli Mahmud; uraγut “women” < *uraγun or *uraγu (cf. Chag. uraγači). The suffix +t
occurs in Yakut among the modern Turkic languages: Yak. xotut “woman society” < xotun, Yak.
oyut “shamans” < oyun, Yak. sayït “written papers” < sayïn, ärättär “men” < ärät +tär < ärä
+t +tär(plural suffix) < ärän, etc.
In Korean, there is the plural suffix +tïl. This is supposed to consist of two plural suffixes;
+t +ï(connective vowel) +l. The suffix +t in Korean has the same origin of the Turkic +t. The
Mongolian plural suffix is +d which probably comes from the Altaic +t: Mo. noyad “princes” <
noyan, Mo. qaγad “khans” < qaγan, Mo. usud “waters” < usun, etc. In Manch there is the plural
suffix +ta which was developed from +t: Ma. amata “fathers” < ama, Ma. amcita “uncles” <
amci, Ma. data “princes” < da, etc. (Poppe 1952: 70). The Altaic plrual suffix +t occurs in the 3.
personal suffix plural of Evenki +tin < +t +i(connective suffix) +n(3. personal suffix singular).
2) Case forms
(1) Trk. +n (genetive suffix)
Orh. +їng/+ing < +n: qaγanїng+їn 'your ruler'(KT S 9, KT E 23), etc. In Kül
Tekin inscription, the form of +їγ occurs; türük bodun+їγ atї küsi 'name and fame of
Turkic people' (KT E 25). This form was developed from +їng. According to
Räsänen(1957: 56), Turkic genetive suffix +їng/+ing comes from the Proto-form +n
or +ń.
// Ko. +n
In Korean, there is the nominative suffix +n. According to the proceeding
sounds, diverse forms are used such as +nїn/+їn, +ăn/+năn, +n all of which are
developed from +n. In my opinion, this suffix has the same origin with the Altaic
genetive suffix +n. In Korean sentences are originally nominal sentences which have
the deverbal noun suffix +ta or +ra in the end of sentence. These suffixes have
nothing to do with person of the subject. From this fact, we can deduce that the
nominative suffix +n was originated from genetive suffix. The Korean suffix +n is
used here as a syntactic genetive suffix (Choi 1991: 192). H. Winkler(1921: 34) stated
that there was genetivistic relationship between the subject and the predicative in the
Altaic languages.
Cf. In Mongolian, the genetive case is formed with the suffix +n; aqa+a+yin
“brother's”, ere+yin “man's”, dalai+yin “sea's”, ulus+un “nation's”, etc. In Tungus,
there are various forms of suffix such as +ng, +ngī, +ni for the genetive case; Lam.
+ngĩ, Go., Ulch. +nggi, Ork., Ude., Sol. +nĩ, Neg. +ni ˜ +ngĩ ˜ +ngi, Evk. +nĩ ˜ +ni,
etc. The Manchu genetive case is formed with +ni or +i. According to Poppe, +ngĩ is
compounded of +gai and +n. (Poppe 1955: 187; 1972: 101; 1977: 58). While the
former +gai which was developed from +ki is the same as the Middle Mongolian
suffix +xi, the latter +n is the same as the Altaic genetive suffix +n. Ramstedt
maintained that the Manchu genetive suffix +ni was developed from +n, and
compared it with Turkic and Mongolian. (Ramst.II: 25-6).
2) Trk. +ø(zero) // Ko. +ø (genetive suffix)
There is zero genetive suffix in both Turkic and Korean: Orkh. tabgač süsi “army of China”
< tabgač+ø süs+i, onoq boduni “people of Onok” < onoq+ø bodun+i, etc. Both Mongolian and
Tungus also have zero genetive suffix: Mo. xan xöwǖn “prince”, Tung. mapa hagdoni “inn of
bear”, Lam. oron yelin “horn of deer”, etc.
3) Trk. +a (dative-locative siffix)
In Orkhon Turkic, the dative-locative suffix +a occurs after the first and second person
singular of the possessive suffix +(s)i: Orkh. bodumuma “to my people” < bodun+um(1st person
of possessive suffix)+a(dative-locative suffix). This is the archaic dative-locative suffix. This
suffix also occurs in certain adverbs of place (Tekin 1968: 130-1): Orkh. üze “over, above” < üz
+ ä, Orkh. qurĩya “to the west” < qurĩ + y(connective vowel) + a, etc.
In Korean, the locative case is formed with suffixes such as +æ, +e, +ye which forms
probably goes to +a or +e. This also have the functions of directive and comparative cases.
This fact give us a hint that this suffix was originally developed from the Altaic dative-locative
suffix +a.
On the other hand, the dative-locative suffix -a which doesn't occurs in Modern Mongolian
was used in Classical Mongolian and Middle Mongolian; MMo.(SH) qacara “at a distance” <
qacar + a, MMo.(Mu) γacara “in the ground” < γacar + a, etc. This suffix occurs in certain
adverbs: Mo. türgene “fast” < türgen + e, Mo. ilangγuia “specially” < ilangγui + a, Mo. urana
“skillfully” < uran + a, etc. (Poppe 1977: 66).
4) Trk. +qa // Ko. +ke (dative-locative suffix)
In Orkhon Turkic, there are another forms of dative-locative suffix +qa/+kä, +γa/+gä:
Orkh. tamqa “to the wall” < tam + qa, Orkh. bašinga “to his head” < baš + i + n + γa < baš
“head”, Orkh. äbkä “to house” < äb + kä, etc. This suffix occurs in the directive suffix +γaru (<
+γa+ru): Orkh. oγuz + γaru, Orkh. tabγač + γaru. (Lewincki 1938: 67)9).
The Korean dative suffix +ke probably has the same origin of this Tukic suffix.
In Mongolian, the dative-loctive suffix +γã(> Mo. +γa, Khal. +ã) attested in some adverbs
of place: Mo. γadaγa “outside” < *γãda + γa, cf. Khal. γadã id., Dag. γãd id., Mo. γadana “to
the outside” (< *γãda + na); Mo. degēdü “above” < *de + gē + dü, cf. Mo. degēre “up, summit”
< *de + gē + re, Ma. dele “summit, at the summit” < de + le; Khal. xā “to where” < *kā + γā,
cf. Trk. qanda “at where” < *qa + n + da, etc.
This suffix occurs in the compound suffixes, gākū (< *gā + kū), gawur (< *ga + wur), etc.;
Lam. untagãku “my shoes, shoes for me” < unta + gã + kũ, Lam. turīgãwur < *turkī + gā + wur
“our sled, sled for us”, etc.
5) Trk. +da // Ko. *+ta (locative suffix)
In Orkhon Turkic, the locative case is formed with +da or +ta according to the preceeding
sounds: Orkh. balïqda < balïq “city”, Orkh. äbdä < äb “house”, Orkh. yolta < yol “way”, yerintä
“in the place” < yer + i + tä, etc. According to Poppe(1955: 200-1), the ablative suffix +dan
consists of the locative suffix +da and +n. The latter one, in my opinion, is one and the same
with the archaic instrumental suffix +n. The suffix occurs in certain adverbs of place, reflecting
the very archaic form; ast “below” (< *as + t), alt “under” (< *al + t), üst “above” (< *üs + t),
art “behind” (< *ar + t), etc. (Menges 1968: 110).
In Korean, there is the dependent morpheme +te which designates place: neka kande “(the
place) where you went” < ne(you) + ka(nominative suffix) ka-(go) +n(participle) + te. This was
probably originated from the Altaic locative suffix +da. On the other hand, this occurs in the
interrogative pronoun ədɔi or ədi “where” as fossilated; ədɔi < *ɔ + dɔi. The morpheme ə in ədɔi
appears in certain pronouns and adverbs: ədïri “how, where” < *ə + dï + ri, ənma “how much”,
ənče “when”, ənï “which”, əi “how”, əcci “how”, əttəhke “how”, etc.
Mongolin also has the locative suffix +da: Mo. morinda < morin “horse”, MMo.(SH) aqada <
aqa “elder brother”, MMo.(SH) de'üde < de'ü “borther”, etc. This is fossilated in some adverbs
of place and time: Mo. ende “here” < *en + de, Mo. urtuda “long time” < *urtu + da, MMo.(SH)
urida “before” < *uri + da, etc. In Manch-Tungus, we can see the suffix in the form of +da or
+dɜ: Evk. bargīda “against, toward” < bargī, Evk. ɜrgīdɜ “lower place” < ɜrgī, Evk. ugīdɜ
“above” < ugī, etc.
6) Trk. +ru // Ko. +ro (directive suffix)
The Turkic directive suffix +ru occurs in the compound siffixes +garu < *+ga+ru, +ngaru
< *+nga+ru, +aru < *+a+ru: Orkh. äbgäru “toward house” < äb, Orkh. tabγačγaru “toward
China” < tabγač, Orkh. yeringaru “toward the place” < *yer + i + nga + ru, Orkh. äbimärü
“toward my house” < *äb + im + ärü, etc. This suffix appears in certain adverbs of direction:
Orkh. kerü “backward” < *ke + rü, Orkh. beri “since” < *be + ri. (Poppe 1977: 71).
In Korean, there is the directive suffix +(V)ro which was originated from the Altaic
directive suffix. (Ramst. II: 38-40)10).
In Mongolian, the suffix is used in the compound suffixes +qagaru (< *+qa+ga+ru) and
qaru (< *+qa+ru). This occurs in certain adverbs of place: Mo. inaru “to this side, before” < *ina
+ ru, cf. inagši “to this side, backward”, Mo. činaru “to that side” < *čina + ru, cf. čnagši id., etc.
In Modern Mongolian, the suffix +rū is used as a directive suffix: Khal. modorū “toward forest”
< modon; Bury. uharū “toward water” < uhang; Bury. morilū “toward horse” < morin, etc. The
Tungus directive suffix is +ri: Ma. culeri “forward” < *tule + ri, cf. Ma. culesi “forward” < *cule
+ si(directive suffix) > +š); Ma. tuleri “outward” < tule “outside”, etc.
7) Trk. +ra // Ko. +rə (directive suffix)
In Orkhon Turkic, there is the directive suffix +ra besides +ru: Orkh. tašra “outward” <
taš + ra, Orkh. ičrä “inward” < ič + rä, Orkh. asra “downward” < *as + ra, Orkh. öngrä
“forward” < öng + rä, Orkh. kisrä “backward” < *kis + rä, Orkh. šadra “to the king, toward the
king” < šad + ra, etc. (Tekin 1968: 135). This ancient directive suffix is not used in modern
Turkic languages. However, it occurs in certain demonstrative pronouns of southern Turkic
languages, i.e. Turkish, Azerbaijan, Turkmen (Bang 1917: 10): bura “this place” (< bu +ra), ora
“that place” (< o +ra), šura “that place, this place” (< šu +ra), nere “what place” (< ne +re).
In Korean, the Altaic directive suffix appears in certain adverbs of place; iri “toward this
place” < i(demonstrative proun “this”) +ri, čǝri “toward that place” < čǝ(demonstrative proun
“that” + ri, etc. The word iri was in the form of irǝ (< i +rǝ) in Middle Korean. This fact shows
that the directive suffix was deveolped from +re or +rǝ in Korean.
Both Mongolian and Manchu have the directive suffix +re: Mo. tere “it” < *te + re, Ma. ere
“this” < *e + re, cf. Sol. ɜ + ri, Ma. tere < *te + re. cf. Sol. tari id.
8) Trk +lū (comitative suffix) // Ko. +lo (instrumental suffix)
In Orkhon Turkic, the comitative case is formed with +lïγu. This suffix is compounded of
+lï and +γu. On the other hand, In Yakut, the comitative suffix is +lĩn or +lūn which consists of
two morpheme, the comitative suffix +lũ and the instrumental suffix +n. (Poppe1977: 72-3).
The Korean instrumental suffix +(V)ro comes from the Altaic comitative suffix +lu.
In Mongolian, the comitative suffix is +luγa/+lüge which is a compound suffix. This suffix
consists of the comitative suffix +lu and dative-locative uffix +γa. This suffix developed into
+lõ in Khalka, and +lē in Kalmuck.
The Tungus comitative suffix +nun was deveolped from +lūn (< *+lū+n). (Ramstedt II: 42,
Poppe 1977: 72-3)). The suffix +n in it is an archaic instrumental suffix.
V. Conclusion
Many scholars who oppose to the affinity of the Altaic languages point out that
less evdences for the genetic affinity in Altaic are found than those in Euopean. This
fact leads many scholars to come to the conclusion that similarities or common
elements seen in the Altaic languages might be results of old borrowings.
It is true that common elements are insufficent compared to Indo-European. But
no one can tell how much common elements are required to prove the affinity of two
languages. The case of Indo-European can not only be applied generally to all the
language groups, but also can not be the only absolute criterion for others. Although
common elements between two languages are few in number, in order to deny the
affinity of the languages concerned, one should prove that each common element in
question is a borrowing or a coincidence.
As many scholars pointed out, the elements of least correspondence between
Korean and Turkic are the numbers. Actually, this lack of numerical correspondence
between Korean and Turkic is a weak point, as is the case among the other Altaic
languages. Ramstedt(1907:1-2) was the first to attribute this week point to the
weakness of the Altaic theory. However, Ramstedt was convinced that the countless
number of phonological and morphological common elements among the Altaic
languages was far more significant that the lack of numerical common elements. It is
more important to emphasize the existence of common elements among related
languages than their absence. The absence of common numbers or specific
vocabularies among the Altaic languages does not constitute evidence against the
Altaic theory. we should keep in mind, as N. Poppe already pointed out, that common
elements found among languages of the same language group are more important than
differences there are. For, what is lacking is less important than what is there. The
lack of a declension system of the Latin, Greek, or Sanskrit type in English does not
render the latter unrelated to other Indo-European languages. It is the elements
common to English and other Indo-European languages that make them related.
The same logic can be applied to the common elements found between Korean
and the Altaic languages. We have enough common elements to improve that Korean
has close relationship with Turkic as well as the other Altaic languages, i.e. Mongolian
and Manch-Tungus. In addition, the fact that the morphological elements are not
easily borrowed between languages, added to the fact that the common morphological
elements between Korean and Turkic are not less numerous than between Turkic and
other Altaic languages, strengthens the possibility that there is a close genetic affinity
between Korean and Turkic.
On the other hand, it is certain that, generally speaking, common elements of
Korean and the Altaic languages are not more in number than those among other
Altaic languages. But these can not negate the Altaic elements present in the essential
structure of Korean; there is no possibility of some elements other than the Altaic
ones that could displace them.
It is conceivable that in Korean there is a substratum of a non-Altaic language,
that the Korean Altaist B.H. Kim(1976: 3-24) called 'the ancient Korean peninsula
Language' or S.M. Schirokogoroff(1931: 187-9) called 'the paleoasiatic languages'.
However, while the hypothetical ancient Asian language or languages may have
influenced the Korean phonological system to a degree, this influence was definitely
not sufficient to change the basic structure of Korean.
References
Aalto P., 1955 “On the Altaic Initial p-”, CAJ 2. pp.9-16.
Benzing J., 1955 Die Tunguisischen Sprachen. Wiesbaden.
Benzing J., 1955 Lamutische Grammatik. Wiesbaden.
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